Islam for Non-Muslims
- RELIGIOUS FAITHS VS IRRELIGIOUS IDEAS
- ISLAM AS A RELIGION
- ISLAM AS A WAY OF LIFE
Muslims in Practices of Science
29: ISLAM IN PRACTICE OF SCIENCE
Introduction: Islam made remarkable contributions to science and civilization by explaining scientific phenomena through the Quran which were based on solid facts and well ahead of time. What’s more, Quran inspired the Muslims to “contemplate (the wonders of) creations in the heavens and the earth, (with the musing): Our Lord! You have not created (all) these for nothing!” (3:191). Muslims also responded positively by engaging in scientific practices that produced numerous fruits of inventions and discoveries.
Preservation & Translation: House of Wisdom: Islam got started with scientific researches at a time when the Western world was passing through what the historians call the ‘Dark Ages’ of ignorance (500 to 1000 A.D.). The Muslims were making glorious contributions to science and other intellectual pursuits spanning over six centuries of the Golden Ages (662-1258 A.D.) under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The main driving force behind this was the House of Wisdom (Bayt al Hikmah) founded by Caliph Harun Al Rashid in Baghdad in 830 A.D. which provided for the first scientific gatherings nationwide. Other Muslim cities like Cairo, Cordova, Timbaktu had also their own centers of learning and research. The Muslims were among very few peoples on earth who made extensive use of paper and published numerous books that were sold at street-side stalls during medieval time. This was a period when the European church schools faced acute shortage of textbooks which the students were forced to share.
The Muslims rendered high value services through preserving and translating the fruits of ancient Greek civilization that declined around the first century A.D. In doing so, they also injected their innovative genius leading up to many improvements and original contributions as well. The Muslim scientists preferred to find the facts through experimentation, now considered a part of scientific method. More importantly, they were able to use sophisticated mathematical models to solve conventional problems.
In this way, the works of Muslim scholars bridged the gap between the Greek and modern civilizations and thereby laid the basis of what the Western society achieved afterward through the Scientific Revolution and Industrial Revolution. We now specifically cite the following contributions of earlier Muslims, based on history books including those by P.K. Hitti, Beck et al., Ellis & Elser among others.
(1) Medicine: The Muslims were many centuries ahead of the West in medical research and practices. Ibn Sina: Ibn Sina (Avicenna), the great Muslim medical scientist authored a masterpiece of medical literature named ‘Canon of Medicine’ which “served as the chief guide to medical science in the West for five centuries (from 12th to 17th century)” (Hitti). This work listed 4000 prescriptions covering both diagnosis and prevention aspects of diseases and described the functions of the heart, kidney and blood circulation etc. He found ‘quarantine’ (isolation) important for breaking the cycle of infection which is now practiced to fight COVID pandemic.
Al-Razi: Another great scientist Al-Razi wrote an encyclopedia named the Comprehensive Book that improved upon prevailing medical wisdom with his own contributions. He also authored a Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, translated into multiple languages. He developed the method of vaccination. He also saw a role of clean air in prevention of diseases and doctors’ comforting words being helpful for quick cure for the patients. Besides, there were many lesser known Muslim scientists who contributed to health science in various ways.
Caliph Harun Al-Rashid set up the earliest general hospital in Baghdad in 805 AD and later many more sprang up in the same city as well as other cities like Damascus, Cordova etc. Many of these hospitals opened different wards for specialized treatment, set up dispensaries, opened emergency sections and operated in rural areas with mobile units. They set up dispensaries and discovered medicines for many diseases. The Muslim scientists found clues to the existence of tiny germs as the cause of many diseases and this was pivotal around the time when small pox killed by the millions. They pioneered treatment for mental illness and discovered antidote to poisoning. They were advanced in using iron in making medical instruments including those needed for surgery etc.
The Muslims discovered the cancer in the stomach and made rare experimentation with the plague. Probably their more profound contributions were in the field of optical science. Their specialty in the optical science led to the development of cataracts treatment through sucking up fluid from eye lenses with the help of a needle. This early form of cataract surgery was used globally for centuries to protect vision of people.
(2) Mathematics: The Quran boosted the interest of the Muslims in the science of numbers. For examples, it revealed “the number of months is twelve (in a year) in the sight of God” (9:36). It also said Prophet Noah survived “a thousand years less fifty (subtraction)” as thousand was the highest known number at that time (29:14). All these were inspirational for early Muslims to contribute in various fields of math.
(i) Number: The Muslim scientists adopted the Arab numerals (1 through 9) from the Guptas of India and used these numbers in a place value system. Now the importance of place value gained worldwide attention as a major achievement. Because the value of a number often depends more on the place value of a number than the number itself (For example, 5 is more valuable if placed in a position of hundred i.e. 500 rather than ten i.e.50). They spread these numerals worldwide including Europe and that is why these are known as Arab numerals (not Gupta numbers). Apparently, Arab numerals are simpler and popular than the Roman numerals (ex: i, ii, iii etc.) which are obviously more complex particularly for big value number and therefore less popular. The Arabs also made extensive use of the decimal system and zero (‘0’).
(ii) Geometry: The Muslims translated geometry of the Greek scholar Euclid and published many original books. Their works in geometry led to the growth of trigonometry which they used for measuring the distance of stars and planets. They were the pioneers of plane and spherical trigonometry. They also published trigonometric ratios and completed a list thereof.
(iii) Algebra: The greatest Muslim mathematical genius was Al-Khwarizmi born in Baghdad in 800’s. His pioneering works particularly through resolving many complex equations lead to the development of algebra. In fact, the very word ‘algebra’ comes from the name of his book in Arabic ‘hisab al-jabr’. His landmark book was “translated into Latin in the 12th century by Gerard of Cremona” and was “used until the 16th century as the principal mathematical textbook of European universities” (Hitti). What’s more, Muslim mathematicians used equations to define curves and lines which are now widely used in econometrics, calculus and numerous other fields.
(3) Astronomy & Geography: The Muslim scientists became interested in astronomy and geography by way of fulfilling their needs for the Five Pillars. For example, the need for pinpointing the direction of Mecca for praying and traveling there for annual pilgrimage inspired them to advance knowledge on geography. Likewise, they had to research on astronomy for determining the timing of 5 times prayer which shifts across seasons. Similarly, they needed to calculate the calendar of Ramadan fasting in Islamic lunar year which every year comes closer by about 10 days compared to Christian era.
(i) Astronomy: The Muslim astronomers set up scores of observatories at Baghdad, Uzbekistan and other places. They improved upon the astrolabe and developed other devices for observing the skies. They used them for studying the location, angle, relative distance, and movement of the heavenly bodies, solar and lunar eclipses, earth’s rotation, altitude, latitude, longitude, atmospheric refraction etc. In this process, they not only verified the existing astronomical wisdom particularly of the Greek’s but also came up with many original contributions. They built mathematical models of the universe and prepared a set of astronomical tables. They improved upon a Greek device named armillary sphere for making an accurate calendar.
(ii) Geography: The Muslim scientists devised equipment for measuring the size and diameter of earth and they measured its circumference which was very close to accurate figure (about 25,000 miles). A mapmaker named Al-Idrisi completed the first map making project for the earth in 1100s. They proclaimed the earth as round at a time when it appeared yet flat to many Western scientists. Their descriptions of the solar eclipses were closest to accuracy and they saw an impact of lunar eclipse on the ocean tide and current. The sum-total of these Muslim contributions to astronomy and geography were substantially helpful for exploration by the later day navigators and explorers like Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da Gama etc.
(4) Business: The Muslims got inspiration for business from the life of the Prophet and they came up with many innovations in the business field as well. They practiced partnership business, set up banks for currency exchange and improved accounting system. They introduced ‘check/cheque’ (a convenient substitute for cash) for business which is named after Arabic root word ‘sakk’. The Muslims organized their manufacturing industries by guilds or unions that regulated the quality of products.
(5) Literature: The Muslims had strong tradition of poetry and storytelling, dating back to Arabian tribes during the Prophet’s time. Omar Khayyam and Firdausi were among the best known poets. One well-known collection of tales was “The Arabian Nights: Tales from a Thousand and One Nights” that contains colorful stories of the contemporary Muslim world including ‘Aladdin and His Magic Lamp’ and ‘Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves’. The Muslim artists perfected their skills in calligraphy or the art of beautiful handwriting for decorating mosques with holy passages from the Quran. They were skillful in architecture that followed a pattern of domed mosques and high minarets.
(6) Philosophy: Many Muslim scholars tried to harmonize the Greek philosophical ideas with the religious beliefs of Islam. Al-Gazzali, Ibn Rushd, Al-Farabi, Ibn-Khaldun are some of the big names in philosophy. The works of Ibn Rushd on Aristotle influenced the medieval Christian philosophy. Ibn Khaldun also influenced economic thoughts and theories around that time through his writing.
(7) Other Fields: The Muslims developed alchemy (root Arabic word “al-kimia”), an early branch of chemistry and in doing so they invented necessary equipments and methods that are still useful in chemistry. The root for words like ‘coffee’, ‘algorithm’, ‘nadir’ etc. link to Islamic tradition. The Muslim scientists also have the credit of discovering or developing nitric acid, sulfuric acid, uric acid, potassium, ammonia salt, pendulum, stained glass, distilled alcohol, gunpowder, mechanized water clocks, soap bar, shampoo and toothpaste among many others.
Conclusion: It appears from the above that the medieval Muslims made glorious contributions to scientific inventions and discoveries, and in this respect they were the forerunner to modern science of the West. They, however, subsequently lost the needed political favor after the decline of the Abbasid dynasty due to Mongol invasion and this ultimately put a brake on their progress along the path of scientific efforts.